FREE ESSAY ON BATTERED WOMEN

BATTERED WOMEN

Battered Women's Syndrome: A Survey of Contemporary Theories Domestic Violence November
16, 1996 In 1991, Governor William Weld modified parole regulations and permitted women
to seek commutation if they could present evidence indicating they suffered from battered
women's syndrome. A short while later, the Governor, citing spousal abuse as his impetus,
released seven women convicted of killing their husbands, and the Great and General Court
of Massachusetts enacted Mass. Gen. L. ch. 233 _ 23E (1993), which permits the
introduction of evidence of abuse in criminal trials. These decisive acts brought the
issue of domestic abuse to the public's attention and left many Massachusetts residents,
lawyers and judges struggling to define battered women's syndrome. In order to help these
individuals define battered women's syndrome, the origins and development of the three
primary theories of the syndrome and recommended treatments are outlined below. I. The
Classical Theory of Battered Women's Syndrome and its Origins The Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), known in the mental health field as the
clinician's bible, does not recognize battered women's syndrome as a distinct mental
disorder. In fact, Dr. Lenore Walker, the architect of the classical battered women's
syndrome theory, notes the syndrome is not an illness, but a theory that draws upon the
principles of learned helplessness to explain why some women are unable to leave their
abusers. Therefore, the classical battered women's syndrome theory is best regarded as an
offshoot of the theory of learned helplessness and not a mental illness that afflicts
abused women. The theory of learned helplessness sought to account for the passive
behavior subjects exhibited when placed in an uncontrollable environment. In the late
60's and early 70's, Martin Seligman, a famous researcher in the field of psychology,
conducted a series of experiments in which dogs were placed in one of two types of cages.
In the former cage, henceforth referred to as the shock cage, a bell would sound and the
experimenters would electrify the entire floor seconds later, shocking the dog regardless
of location. The latter cage, however, although similar in every other respect to the
shock cage, contained a small area where the experimenters could administer no shock.
Seligman observed that while the dogs in the latter cage learned to run to the
nonelectrified area after a series of shocks, the dogs in the shock cage gave up trying
to escape, even when placed in the latter cage and shown that escape was possible.
Seligman theorized that the dogs' initial experience in the uncontrollable shock cage led
them to believe that they could not control future events and was responsible for the
observed disruptions in behavior and learning. Thus, according to the theory of learned
helplessness, a subject placed in an uncontrollable environment will become passive and
accept painful stimuli, even though escape is possible and apparent. In the late 1970's,
Dr. Walker drew upon Seligman's research and incorporated it into her own theory, the
battered women's syndrome, in an attempt to explain why battered women remain with their
abusers. According to Dr. Walker, battered women's syndrome contains two distinct
elements: a cycle of violence and symptoms of learned helplessness. The cycle of violence
is composed of three phases: the tension building phase, active battering phase and calm
loving respite phase. During the tension building phase, the victim is subjected to
verbal abuse and minor battering incidents, such as slaps, pinches and psychological
abuse. In this phase, the woman tries to pacify her batterer by using techniques that
have worked previously. Typically, the woman showers her abuser with kindness or attempts
to avoid him. However, the victim's attempts to pacify her batter are often fruitless and
only work to delay the inevitable acute battering incident. The tension building phase
ends and the active battering phase begins when the verbal abuse and minor battering
evolve into an acute battering incident. A release of the tensions built during phase one
characterizes the active battering phase, which usually last for a period of two to
twenty-four hours. The violence during this phase is unpredictable and inevitable, and
statistics indicate that the risk of the batterer murdering his victim is at its
greatest. The batterer places his victim in a constant state of fear, and she is unable
to control her batterer's violence by utilizing techniques that worked in the tension
building phase. The victim, realizing her lack of control, attempts to mitigate the
violence by becoming passive. After the active battering phase comes to a close, the
cycle of violence enters the calm loving respite phase or honeymoon phase. During this
phase, the batterer apologizes for his abusive behavior and promises that it will never
happen again. The behavior exhibited by the batter in the calm loving respite phase
closely resembles the behavior he exhibited when the couple first met and fell in love.
The calm loving respite phase is the most psychologically victimizing phase because the
batterer fools the victim, who is relieved that the abuse has ended, into believing that
he has changed. However, inevitably, the batterer begins to verbally abuse his victim and
the cycle of abuse begins anew. According to Dr. Walker, Seligman's theory of learned
helplessness explains why women stay with their abusers and occurs in a victim after the
cycle of violence repeats numerous times. As noted earlier, dogs who were placed in an
environment where pain was unavoidable responded by becoming passive. Dr. Walker asserts
that, in the domestic abuse ambit, sporadic brutality, perceptions of powerlessness, lack
of financial resources and the superior strength of the batterer all combine to instill a
feeling of helplessness in the victim. In other words, batterers condition women into
believing that they are powerless to escape by subjecting them to a continuing pattern of
uncontrollable violence and abuse. Dr. Walker, in applying the learned helplessness
theory to battered women, changed society's perception of battered women by dispelling
the myth that battered women like abuse and offering a logical and rationale explanation
for why most stay with their abuser. As the classical theory of battered women's syndrome
is based upon the psychological principles of conditioning, experts believe that behavior
modification strategies are best suited for treating women suffering from the syndrome. A
simple, yet effective, behavioral strategy consists of two stages. In the initial stage,
the battered woman removes herself from the uncontrollable or shock cage environment and
isolates herself from her abuser. Generally, professionals help the victim escape by
using assertiveness training, modeling and recommending use of the court system. After
the woman terminates the abusive relationship, professionals give the victim relapse
prevention training to ensure that subsequent exposure to abusive behavior will not cause
maladaptive behavior. Although this strategy is effective, the model offered by Dr.
Walker suggests that battered women usually do not actively seek out help. Therefore,
concerned agencies and individuals must be proactive and extremely sensitive to the needs
and fears of victims. In sum, the classical battered women's syndrome is a theory that
has its origins in the research of Martin Seligman. Women in a domestic abuse situation
experience a cycle of violence with their abuser. The cycle is composed of three phases:
the tension building phase, active battering phase and calm loving respite phase. A
gradual increase in verbal abuse marks the tension building phase. When this abuse
culminates into an acute battering episode, the relationship enters the active battering
phase. Once the acute battering phase ends, usually within two to twenty-four hours, the
parties enter the calm loving respite phase, in which the batterer expresses remorse and
promises to change. After the cycle has played out several times, the victim begins to
manifest symptoms of learned helplessness. Behavioral modification strategies offer an
effective treatment for battered women's syndrome. However, Dr. Walker's model indicates
that battered women may not seek the help that they need because of feelings of
helplessness. II. An Alternate Battered Women's Syndrome Theory: Battered Women as
Survivors. Over the years, empirical data has emerged that casts doubt on Dr. Walker's
explanation of why women stay with their batterers or, in extreme cases, why they kill
their abusers. Two researchers, Edward W. Gondolf and Ellen R. Fisher, make reference to
voluminous statistics that refute the classical battered women's syndrome theory, and
suggest Dr. Walker erroneously attributes a victim's refusal to leave her batterer to
learned helplessness. For instance, the two, in discounting Dr. Walker's theory, cite a
study conducted by Lee H. Bowker that indicates victims of abuse often contact other
family members for help as the violence escalates over time. The two also note that
Bowker observed a steady increase in formal help-seeking behavior as the violence
increased. In addition to citing empirical data, Gondolf and Fisher point out that using
Dr. Walker's theory to explain the battered woman's actions in extreme cases creates the
ultimate oxymoron: a woman so helpless she kills her batterer. In an effort to account
for the shortcomings of the classical battered women's theory, Gondolf and Fisher offered
the markedly different survivor theory of battered women's syndrome, which consists of
four important elements. The first element of the survivor theory surmises that a pattern
of abuse prompts battered women to employ innovative coping strategies and to seek help,
such as flattering the batterer and turning to their families for assistance. When these
sources of help prove ineffective, the battered woman seeks out other sources and employs
different strategies to lessen the abuse. For example, the battered women may avoid her
abuser all together and seek help from the court system. Thus, according to the survivor
theory, battered women actively seek help and employ coping skills throughout the abusive
relationship. In contrast, the classical theory of battered women's syndrome views women
as becoming passive and helpless in the face of repeated abuse. The second element of
Gondolf and Fisher's theory posits that a lack of options, know-how and finances, not
learned helplessness, instills a feeling of anxiety in the victim that prevents her from
escaping the abuser. When a battered woman seeks outside help, she is typically
confronted with an ineffective bureaucracy, insufficient help sources and societal
indifference. This lack of practical options, combined with the victim's lack of
financial resources, make it likely that a battered women will stay and try to change her
batterer, rather than leave and face the unknown. The classical battered women's syndrome
theory differs in that it focuses on the victim's perception that escape is impossible,
not on the obstacles the victim must overcome to escape. The third element expands on the
first and describes how the victim actively seeks help from a variety of formal and
informal help sources. For instance, an example of an informal help source would be a
close friend and a formal help source would be a shelter. Gondolf and Fisher maintain
that the help obtained from these sources is inadequate and piecemeal in nature. Given
these inadequacies, the researchers conclude that the leaving a batterer is a difficult
path for a victim to embark upon. The fourth element of the survivor theory hypothesizes
that the failure of the aforementioned help sources to intervene in a comprehensive and
decisive manner permits the cycle of abuse to continue unchecked. Interestingly, Gondolf
and Fisher blame the lack of effective help on a variation of the learned helplessness
theory, explaining help organizations are too overwhelmed and limited in their resources
to be effective and therefore do not try as hard as they should to help victims. Whatever
the case may be, the researchers argue that we can better understand the plight of the
battered woman by asking did she seek help and what happened when she did, rather than
why didn't she leave. Because the survivor theory of learned helplessness attributes the
battered woman's plight to ineffective help sources and societal indifference, a logical
solution would entail increased funding for programs in place and educating the public
about the symptoms and consequences of domestic violence. There are battered women's
advocacy programs in place in courts located throughout the country. However, inadequate
funding limits their effectiveness. By increasing funding, citizens can assure that all
battered women will receive the assistance that will permit them to escape their
batterer. Additionally, if we educate citizens about the harmful effects of domestic
abuse, the public will no longer treat victims with indifference. To recap, Edward W.
Gondolf and Ellen R. Fisher developed the survivor theory of battered women's syndrome to
explain why statistics indicate that battered women increase their help seeking behavior
as the violence escalates. The theory is composed of four important elements. The first
recognizes that battered women actively seek help throughout their relationship with the
abuser. The second element posits that a lack of options, know-how and finances creates
anxiety in the victim over leaving her batterer. The third element describes the
inadequate and piecemeal help the victim receives. Finally, the fourth element concludes
that the failure of help sources, not learned helplessness, accounts for why many
battered women remain with their abusers. Under the survivor theory, the best method for
helping battered women is to increase funding for battered women's assistance programs
and agencies and educate the public about the harmful effects of domestic abuse. III.
Battered Women's Syndrome Equals Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Although the DSM-IV does
not recognize battered women's syndrome as a distinct mental illness or disorder, some
experts maintain that battered women's syndrome is just another name for post traumatic
stress disorder, which the DSM-IV recognizes. The post traumatic stress disorder theory
is also applied to individuals who were never exposed to domestic abuse, and, in the
domestic abuse ambit, does not exclusively focus on the battered woman's perception of
helplessness or ineffective help sources to explain why she stayed with her batterer.
Instead, the theory focuses on the psychological disturbance an individual suffers after
exposure to a traumatic event. In 1980, the American Psychiatric Association added the
post traumatic stress disorder classification to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders III, a manual used by mental health professionals to diagnose mental
illness. Although the diagnosis was controversial at the time, post traumatic stress
disorder has gained wide acceptance in the mental health community and revolutionized the
way professionals regard human reactions to trauma. Prior to the disorder's inception,
experts attributed the cause of emotional trauma to individual weakness. However, with
the advent of the theory of post traumatic stress disorder, experts now attribute the
etiology of emotional trauma to an external stressor, not a weakness in the psyche of the
individual. Since 1980, the American Psychiatric Association has revised the criteria for
diagnosing post traumatic stress disorder several times. Currently, the diagnostic
criteria for post traumatic stress disorder include a history of exposure to a traumatic
event and symptoms from each of three symptom clusters: intrusive recollections,
avoidant/numbing symptoms and hyper arousal symptoms. Recent data indicate that many
individuals qualify for a post traumatic stress disorder under the current diagnostic
criteria, with prevalence rates running between 5 to 10% in our society. As noted
earlier, in order for a diagnosis of post traumatic stress disorder to apply, the
individual must have been exposed to a traumatic event involving actual or threatened
death or injury, or a threat to the physical integrity of the person or others. The
authors of the early theory of post traumatic stress disorder considered a traumatic
event to be outside the range of human experience, such events included rape, torture,
war, the Holocaust, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, earthquakes,
hurricanes, volcanos, airplane crashes and automobile accidents, and did not contemplate
applying the diagnosis to battered women. The American Psychiatric Association loosened
the traumatic event criteria in the DSM-IV, which replaced the DSM-III and DSM-IIIR.
Presently, the traumatic event need only be markedly distressing to almost anyone.
Therefore, battered women have little trouble meeting the DSM-IV traumatic event
diagnostic requirement because most people would find the abuse battered women are
subjected to markedly distressing. In addition to meeting the traumatic event diagnostic
criteria, an individual must have symptoms from the intrusive recollection,
avoidant/numbing and hyper arousal categories for a post traumatic stress disorder
diagnosis to apply. The intrusive recollection category consists of symptoms that are
distinct and easily identifiable. In individuals suffering from post traumatic stress
disorder, the traumatic event is a dominant psychological experience that evokes panic,
terror, dread, grief or despair. Often, these feelings are manifested in daytime
fantasies, traumatic nightmares and flashbacks. Additionally, stimuli that the individual
associates with the traumatic event can evoke mental images, emotional responses and
psychological reactions associated with the trauma. Examples of intrusive recollection
symptoms a battered woman may suffer are fantasies of killing her batterer and flashbacks
of battering incidents. The avoidant/numbing cluster consists of the emotional strategies
individuals with post traumatic stress disorder use to reduce the likelihood that they
will either expose themselves to traumatic stimuli, or if exposed, will minimize their
psychological response. The DSM-IV divides the strategies into three categories:
behavioral, cognitive and emotional. Behavioral strategies include avoiding situations
where the stimuli are likely to be encountered. Dissociation and psychogenic amnesia are
cognitive strategies by which individuals with post traumatic stress disorder cut off the
conscious experience of trauma-based memories and feelings. Lastly, the individual may
separate the cognitive aspects from the emotional aspects of psychological experience and
perceive only the former. This type of psychic numbing serves as an emotional anesthesia
that makes it extremely difficult for people with post traumatic stress disorder to
participate in meaningful interpersonal relationships. Thus, a battered woman suffering
from post traumatic stress disorder may avoid her batterer and repress trauma-based
feelings and emotions. The hyper arousal category symptoms closely resemble those seen in
panic and generalized anxiety disorders. Although symptoms such as insomnia and
irritability are generic anxiety symptoms, hyper vigilance and startle are unique to post
traumatic stress disorder. The hyper vigilance symptom may become so intense in
individuals suffering from post traumatic stress disorder that it appears as if they are
paranoid. A careful reading of post traumatic stress disorder symptoms and diagnostic
criteria indicates that Dr. Walker's classical theory of battered women's syndrome is
contained within. For instance, both theories require that the victim be exposed to a
traumatic event. In Dr. Walker's theory, she describes the traumatic event as a cycle of
violence. The post traumatic stress disorder theory, on the other hand, only requires
that the event be markedly distressing to almost everyone. Thus, the cycle of violence
described by Dr. Walker is considered a traumatic stressor for the purposes of diagnosing
post traumatic stress disorder. Additionally, like the classical theory of battered
women's syndrome, the theory of post traumatic stress disorder recognizes that an
individual may become helpless after exposure to a traumatic event. Although the post
traumatic stress disorder theory seems to incorporate Dr. Walker's theory, it is more
inclusive in that it recognizes that different individuals may have different reactions
to traumatic events and does not rely heavily on the theory of learned helplessness to
explain why battered women stay with their abusers. There are several methods a
professional can utilize to treat individuals suffering from post traumatic stress
disorder. The most successful treatments are those that they administer immediately after
the traumatic event. Experts commonly call this type of treatment critical incident
stress debriefing. Although this type of treatment is effective in halting the
development of post traumatic stress disorder, the cyclical nature and gradual escalation
of violence in domestic abuse situations make critical incident stress debriefing an
unlikely therapy for battered women. The second type of treatment is administered after
post traumatic stress disorder has developed and is less effective than critical incident
stress debriefing. This type of treatment may consist of psychodynamic psychotherapy,
behavioral therapy, pharmacotherapy and group therapy. The most effective
post-manifestation treatment for battered women is group therapy. In a group therapy
session, battered women can discuss traumatic memories, post traumatic stress disorder
symptoms and functional deficits with others who have had similar experiences. By
discussing their experiences and symptoms, the women form a common bond and release
repressed memories, feelings and emotions. To summarize, many experts regard battered
women's syndrome as a subcategory of post traumatic stress disorder. The diagnostic
criteria for post traumatic stress disorder include a history of exposure to a traumatic
event and symptoms from each of three symptom clusters: intrusive recollections,
avoidant/numbing symptoms and hyper arousal symptoms. After exposure to a traumatic
event, defined by the DSM-IV as one that is markedly distressing to almost everyone, an
individual suffering from post traumatic stress disorder may suffer intrusive
recollections, which consist of daytime fantasies, traumatic nightmares and flashbacks.
The individual may also try to avoid stimuli that remind him/her of the traumatic event
and/or develop symptoms associated with generic anxiety disorders. Critical incident
stress debriefing, psychodynamic psychotherapy, behavioral therapy, pharmacotherapy and
group therapy are all recognized as effective treatments for post traumatic stress
disorder. IV. Conclusion Although there are many different theories of battered women's
syndrome, most are all variations or hybrids of the three main theories outlined above. A
sound understanding of Dr. Walker's classical battered women's syndrome theory, Gondolf
and Fisher's survivor theory of battered women's syndrome and the post traumatic stress
disorder theory, will permit the reader to identify the origins and essential elements of
these various hybrids and provide them with a better understanding of the plight of the
battered woman. Given the prevalence of domestic abuse in our society, it is important to
realize that the battered woman does not like abuse or is responsible for her
victimization. The three theories discussed above all offer rationale explanations for
why a battered women often stays with her abuser and explore the psychological harm
caused by abuse while discounting the popular perception that battered women must enjoy
the abuse. 
Bibliography
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