FREE ESSAY ON GENETIC ENGINEERING

GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering has been one of the most controversial ethical issues since 1997; when
Dolly the first successfully cloned sheep was announced. Dolly has redefined the meaning
of "identical twin"; not only does she look exactly like her mother she also has the same
genetic make up. This experiment was not only impossible but unthinkable. Yet, Dr. Ian
Wilmut revealed Dolly on February 23, 1997, at seven months old ( Travis 1). On the
surface genetic engineering may appear to be the solution to all of society's ills and
the worlds problems. In all actuality it may have tremendous and unknown side effects.
The issues that surround genetic engineering undoubtedly make it immoral and ethically
wrong.
Long term prospects of mammal cloning remain in question. this is no where near
clinically acceptable for experimentation on humans.
The answer is clear-- there is no safe place to draw the line on when genetic engineering
is acceptable and is not. Governments can not say that the uses are strictly limited to
curing disease because then there becomes a question of what is a genetic disease. For
example, we may feel comfortable defining a mutation in the cystic fibrosis gene as
causing disease if it leads to chronic respiratory infections from birth to death at the
age of twenty five. However a different mutations in the same gene might caused little or
no problem is this also cystic fibrosis? Other unknown aspects of an individuals genetic
make-up and environmental factors also influence the outcome. Soon to be parents were
advised that their child had an extra chromosome that would not cause Down syndrome, but
this mutation was possibly linked to other undesirable traits such as severe acne and
aggressive behavior. Given those circumstances the parents of a would be infant, may
selfishly chose to abort the child(Shenk 6). To many Americans today the abortion of that
child was wrong yet, in a genetically altered society the egg would be thrown away,
implying that it was not normal or was not what the parents wanted.
To simply remove the gene that causes increased aggression and reprogram it to be very
passive and optimistic, is a possibility for parents. But why stop there? The parents
agree that their child will be tall, peaking somewhere between five feet eight and five
feet eleven female and near six feet three inches because dad wants a NFL quarterback and
mom want a super model. Both mom and dad have decided that the child should be smart, to
take out the obesity gene, the gene that controls the risk of alcoholism, also the one
that runs the risk of the child getting lung cancer, and lastly the gene that is prone to
hereditary heart failure. It is at this point where you find the parents searching for
their children in a catalogs, altering the child so much they now have a child who looks
nothing like either of them. The issue of sex selection with in the United States would
not have immediate effects, but in the long run we could become like China and India are
now, aborting one sex in order to control the population of male/female ratios within the
society (Hughes 11).
By condoning genetic manipulation or cloning the world see one the most important values
disappear. Genetic engineering will destroy individualism and become more of a fashion,
much like we see New York fashion shows go through. From one summer to the next the
fashions change as will the use of genetic engineering. Blonde hair and green eyes will
only last as a trend for so long thus, creating a child on what the current trend is.
Individualism would be destroyed. 
A bigger cultural concern about genetic technology is that people will begin to see
genetics as more central and influential in life than they should. Eugenics and genetic
determinism are being fueled by contemporary genetic technology and research, at the
expense of attempts to ameliorate social ills. (Hughes 9). 
Many opponents of genetic engineering and the investigation that has gone into it are
concerned that the growing knowledge of genetics will lead to discrimination and the
problem that may be raised with confidentiality. It's a well known fact that employers
are already attempting to discover the genetic risk of their employees and deny or limit
employment or health care on the basis of that risk profile. Keeping genetic information
confidential from insurers and other non-medical personnel in the health care system is
trickier, since the records will show any special screening or treatment that genetic
risks called for. This could strengthen the powers of insurers in enabling them to
exclude any person from obtaining coverage based on their genetic make up (Hughes 10). 
Currently there are medical procedures within this country that most insurance companies
will not cover but wealthy people who fall stricken with these diseases are able to pay
for treatment. Does genetic manipulation hold the same fate? The answer to this is yes,
the people would find themselves broadening the economic gap between the rich and the
poor. Not only that, but we would find ourselves a genetically divided society. The rich
being genetically altered and the middle and lower classes genetically inferior(Hughes
11-12)
Privacy and confidentiality may also be threatened if a family member gets a genetic test
and the results imply that untested relatives also have the disease, have an increased
risk of having it, or even being a carrier. Some family members may not wish to submit
themselves to these physical discomforts.
To answer the question when might genetic engineering go too far, it already has if there
can be article written about it, that in turn, allowed me to write this paper. 
Genetic Engineering, history and futureAltering the Face of Science
Science is a creature that continues to evolve at a much higher rate than the beings
that
gave it birth. The transformation time from tree-shrew, to ape, to human far exceeds the
time
from analytical engine, to calculator, to computer. But science, in the past, has always
remained
distant. It has allowed for advances in production, transportation, and even
entertainment, but
never in history will science be able to so deeply affect our lives as genetic
engineering will
undoubtedly do. With the birth of this new technology, scientific extremists and
anti-technologists 
have risen in arms to block its budding future. Spreading fear by misinterpretation
of facts, they promote their hidden agendas in the halls of the United States congress.
Genetic
engineering is a safe and powerful tool that will yield unprecedented results,
specifically in the
field of medicine. It will usher in a world where gene defects, bacterial disease, and
even aging
are a thing of the past. By understanding genetic engineering and its history,
discovering its
possibilities, and answering the moral and safety questions it brings forth, the blanket
of fear
covering this remarkable technical miracle can be lifted.
The possibilities of genetic engineering are endless. Once the power to control the
instructions, given to a single cell, are mastered anything can be accomplished. For
example,
insulin can be created and grown in large quantities by using an inexpensive gene
manipulation
method of growing a certain bacteria. This supply of insulin is also not dependant on the
supply
of pancreatic tissue from animals. Recombinant factor VIII, the blood clotting agent
missing in
people suffering from hemophilia, can also be created by genetic engineering. Virtually
all
people who were treated with factor VIII before 1985 acquired HIV, and later AIDS. Being
completely pure, the bioengineered version of factor VIII eliminates any possibility of
viral
infection. Other uses of genetic engineering include creating disease resistant crops,
formulating
milk from cows already containing pharmaceutical compounds, generating vaccines, and
altering livestock traits (Clarke 1). In the not so distant future, genetic engineering
will become
a principal player in fighting genetic, bacterial, and viral disease, along with
controlling aging,
and providing replaceable parts for humans.
Medicine has seen many new innovations in its history. The discovery of anesthetics
permitted the birth of modern surgery, while the production of antibiotics in the 1920s
minimized the threat from diseases such as pneumonia, tuberculosis and cholera. The
creation
of serums which build up the bodies immune system to specific infections, before being
laid low
with them, has also enhanced modern medicine greatly (Stableford 59). All of these
discoveries,
however, will fall under the broad shadow of genetic engineering when it reaches its apex
in the
medical community.
Many people suffer from genetic diseases ranging from thousands of types of cancers, to
blood, liver, and lung disorders. Amazingly, all of these will be able to be treated by
genetic
engineering, specifically, gene therapy. The basis of gene therapy is to supply a
functional gene
to cells lacking that particular function, thus correcting the genetic disorder or
disease. There
are two main categories of gene therapy: germ line therapy, or altering of sperm and egg
cells,
and somatic cell therapy, which is much like an organ transplant. Germ line therapy
results in a
permanent change for the entire organism, and its future offspring. Unfortunately, germ
line
therapy, is not readily in use on humans for ethical reasons. However, this genetic
method
could, in the future, solve many genetic birth defects such as downs syndrome. Somatic
cell
therapy deals with the direct treatment of living tissues. Scientists, in a lab, inject
the tissues
with the correct, functioning gene and then re-administer them to the patient, correcting
the
problem (Clarke 1). 
Along with altering the cells of living tissues, genetic engineering has also proven
extremely helpful in the alteration of bacterial genes. Transforming bacterial cells is
easier
than transforming the cells of complex organisms (Stableford 34). Two reasons are evident
for
this ease of manipulation: DNA enters, and functions easily in bacteria, and the
transformed
bacteria cells can be easily selected out from the untransformed ones. Bacterial
bioengineering
has many uses in our society, it can produce synthetic insulins, a growth hormone for
the
treatment of dwarfism and interferons for treatment of cancers and viral diseases
(Stableford
34).
Throughout the centuries disease has plagued the world, forcing everyone to take part in
a
virtual lottery with the agents of death (Stableford 59). Whether viral or bacterial in
nature,
such disease are currently combated with the application of vaccines and antibiotics.
These
treatments, however, contain many unsolved problems. The difficulty with applying
antibiotics
to destroy bacteria is that natural selection allows for the mutation of bacteria cells,
sometimes
resulting in mutant bacterium which is resistant to a particular antibiotic. This now
indestructible bacterial pestilence wages havoc on the human body. Genetic engineering
is
conquering this medical dilemma by utilizing diseases that target bacterial organisms.
these
diseases are viruses, named bacteriophages, which can be produced to attack specific
disease-causing 
bacteria (Stableford 61). Much success has already been obtained by treating animals
with a phage designed to attack the E. coli bacteria (Stableford 60).
Diseases caused by viruses are much more difficult to control than those caused by
bacteria. Viruses are not whole organisms, as bacteria are, and reproduce by hijacking
the
mechanisms of other cells. Therefore, any treatment designed to stop the virus itself,
will also
stop the functioning of its host cell. A virus invades a host cell by piercing it at a
site called a
receptor. Upon attachment, the virus injects its DNA into the cell, coding it to
reproduce more
of the virus. After the virus is replicated millions of times over, the cell bursts and
the new
viruses are released to continue the cycle. The body's natural defense against such cell
invasion
is to release certain proteins, called antigens, which plug up the receptor sites on
healthy cells. 
This causes the foreign virus to not have a docking point on the cell. This process,
however, is
slow and not effective against a new viral attack. Genetic engineering is improving the
body's
defenses by creating pure antigens, or antibodies, in the lab for injection upon
infection with a
viral disease. This pure, concentrated antibody halts the symptoms of such a disease
until the
bodies natural defenses catch up. Future procedures may alter the very DNA of human
cells,
causing them to produce interferons. These interferons would allow the cell to be able
determine if a foreign body bonding with it is healthy or a virus. In effect, every cell
would be
able to recognize every type of virus and be immune to them all (Stableford 61).
Current medical capabilities allow for the transplant of human organs, and even
mechanical portions of some, such as the battery powered pacemaker. Current science can
even
re-apply fingers after they have been cut off in accidents, or attach synthetic arms and
legs to
allow patients to function normally in society. But would not it be incredibly convenient
if the
human body could simply regrow what it needed, such as a new kidney or arm? Genetic
engineering can make this a reality. Currently in the world, a single plant cell can
differentiate
into all the components of an original, complex organism. Certain types of salamanders
can re-grow 
lost limbs, and some lizards can shed their tails when attacked and later grow them
again. 
Evidence of regeneration is all around and the science of genetic engineering is slowly
mastering
its techniques. Regeneration in mammals is essentially a kind of controlled cancer,
called a
blastema. The cancer is deliberately formed at the regeneration site and then converted
into a
structure of functional tissues. But before controlling the blastema is possible, a
detailed
knowledge of the switching process by means of which the genes in the cell nucleus are
selectively activated and deactivated is needed (Stableford 90). To obtain proof that
such a
procedure is possible one only needs to examine an early embryo and realize that it
knows
whether to turn itself into an ostrich or a human. After learning the procedure to
control and
activate such regeneration, genetic engineering will be able to conquer such ailments as
Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and other crippling diseases without grafting in new tissues.
The
broader scope of this technique would allow the re-growth of lost limbs, repairing any
damaged
organs internally, and the production of spare organs by growing them externally
(Stableford
90).
Ever since biblical times the lifespan of a human being has been pegged at roughly 70
years. But is this number truly finite? In order to uncover the answer, knowledge of the
process
of aging is needed. A common conception is that the human body contains an internal
biological
clock which continues to tick for about 70 years, then stops. An alternate watch analogy
could
be that the human body contains a certain type of alarm clock, and after so many years,
the
alarm sounds and deterioration beings. With that frame of thinking, the human body does
not
begin to age until a particular switch is tripped. In essence, stopping this process
would simply
involve a means of never allowing the switch to be tripped. W. Donner Denckla, of the
Roche
Institute of Molecular Biology, proposes the alarm clock theory is true. He provides
evidence
for this statement by examining the similarities between normal aging and the symptoms of
a
hormonal deficiency disease associated with the thyroid gland. Denckla proposes that as
we get
older the pituitary gland begins to produce a hormone which blocks the actions of the
thyroid
hormone, thus causing the body to age and eventually die. If Denckla's theory is
correct,
conquering aging would simply be a process of altering the pituitary's DNA so it would
never be
allowed to release the aging hormone. In the years to come, genetic engineering may
finally
defeat the most unbeatable enemy in the world, time (Stableford 94). 
The morale and safety questions surrounding genetic engineering currently cause this new
science to be cast in a false light. Anti-technologists and political extremists spread
false
interpretation of facts coupled with statements that genetic engineering is not natural
and defies
the natural order of things. The morale question of biotechnology can be answered by
studying
where the evolution of man is, and where it is leading our society. The safety question
can be
answered by examining current safety precautions in industry, and past safety records of
many
bioengineering projects already in place.
The evolution of man can be broken up into three basic stages. The first, lasting
millions
of years, slowly shaped human nature from Homo erectus to Home sapiens. Natural
selection
provided the means for countless random mutations resulting in the appearance of such
human
characteristics as hands and feet. The second stage, after the full development of the
human
body and mind, saw humans moving from wild foragers to an agriculture based society.
Natural
selection received a helping hand as man took advantage of random mutations in nature and
bred
more productive species of plants and animals. The most bountiful wheats were collected
and
re-planted, and the fastest horses were bred with equally faster horses. Even in our
recent
history the strongest black male slaves were mated with the hardest working female
slaves. The
third stage, still developing today, will not require the chance acquisition of
super-mutations in
nature. Man will be able to create such super-species without the strict limitations
imposed by
natural selection. By examining the natural slope of this evolution, the third stage is a
natural
and inevitable plateau that man will achieve (Stableford 8). This omniscient control of
our
world may seem completely foreign, but the thought of the Egyptians erecting vast
pyramids
would have seem strange to Homo erectus as well.
Many claim genetic engineering will cause unseen disasters spiraling our world into
chaotic darkness. However, few realize that many safety nets regarding bioengineering
are
already in effect. The Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RAC) was formed under the
National Institute of Health to provide guidelines for research on engineered bacteria
for
industrial use. The RAC has also set very restrictive guidelines requiring Federal
approval if
research involves pathogenicity (the rare ability of a microbe to cause disease) (Davis,
Roche
69).
It is well established that most natural bacteria do not cause disease. After many years
of
experimentation, microbiologists have demonstrated that they can engineer bacteria that
are just
as safe as their natural counterparts (Davis, Rouche 70). In fact the RAC reports that
there has
not been a single case of illness or harm caused by recombinant [engineered] bacteria,
and they
now are used safely in high school experiments (Davis, Rouche 69). Scientists have also
devised other methods of preventing bacteria from escaping their labs, such as modifying
the
bacteria so that it will die if it is removed from the laboratory environment. This
creates a shield
of complete safety for the outside world. It is also thought that if such bacteria were
to escape it
would act like smallpox or anthrax and ravage the land. However, laboratory-created
organisms
are not as competitive as pathogens. Davis and Roche sum it up in extremely laymen's
terms,
no matter how much Frostban you dump on a field, it's not going to spread (70). In fact
Frostbran, developed by Steven Lindow at the University of California, Berkeley, was
sprayed on
a test field in 1987 and was proven by a RAC committee to be completely harmless
(Thompson
104).
Fear of the unknown has slowed the progress of many scientific discoveries in the past. 
The thought of man flying or stepping on the moon did not come easy to the average
citizens of
the world. But the fact remains, they were accepted and are now an everyday occurrence in
our
lives. Genetic engineering too is in its period of fear and misunderstanding, but like
every great
discovery in history, it will enjoy its time of realization and come into full use in
society. The
world is on the brink of the most exciting step into human evolution ever, and through
knowledge and exploration, should welcome it and its possibilities with open arms.