FREE ESSAY ON INTELLIGENGE TESTING & GROUPING

INTELLIGENGE TESTING & GROUPING

Definition: Intelligence Testing
In reviewing the text, I found the definition of intelligence testing to be very simple;
testing used to measure intelligence. Two definitions found on an Internet site at
dictionary.com are: (a) A standardized test used to establish an intelligence level
rating by measuring a subject's ability to form concepts, solve problems, acquire
information, reason, and perform other intellectual operations. (b) A psychometric test
of intelligence; they used to think that intelligence is what an intelligence test
tests." In defining intelligence, there has always been the question of whether
intelligence is measured as one phenomenon or if it has many variables that are combined.
For example, is it how "smart" a person is? Or is it a mixture of survival, mathematical,
social and other abilities. There are many debates regarding weather measuring
intelligence is determined from test scores and results or if it is measured by the
person ability to process and problem solve. 
Uses of Intelligence Testing 
In an educational setting, intelligence and achievement tests are administered routinely
to assess individual accomplishment. They are used to improve instruction and curriculum
planning. High schools use these test to assist in the students future educational
planning. Elementary schools utilize screening and testing procedures to help determine
readiness for reading and writing placement. Intelligence can be measured, though
imperfectly, by intelligence tests, among them the Standford-Binat Intelligence and the
Wechsler scales. These tests are intended to determine an individual's intelligence
quotient (IQ). Intelligence tests usually provide an estimate of global cognitive
functioning as well as information about functioning within more specific domains.
Compared to measures of virtually all other human traits, intelligence test scores are
quite stable. However, the degree of stability increases with age such that early
childhood and preschool measures of intellectual function are far less predictive of
later functioning than assessments taken during middle childhood. Furthermore, despite
their relative stability, intelligence test scores may change as a function of important
environmental factors. Therefore, intelligence test scores are descriptive of a child's
functioning at that point in time. This could change with alterations in the child's
psychiatric status, environmental conditions, or educational program. 
Components of a good intelligence test are (a) Validity; does the test really measure
intelligence and not something else? (b) Reliability; does the test produce consistent
measurements? (c) Norms; are the participants being fairly compared? Components that make
an intelligence test flawed are (a) Poor validity; many intelligence tests are sensitive
to social factors in addition to intelligence. (b) Poor norms; being compared to people
who are different. (c) Inappropriate application; test measures something that has
nothing to do with the participants school or job.
Theories of Process 
Psychometric Model 
Psychometric approach is defined as psychology that deals with the design,
administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of
psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, and personality traits. The
psychometric model is a theoretical perspective that quantifies individual differences in
test scores to establish a rank order of abilities. There are various psychometric
approaches to intelligence. The following paragraphs describe three different theorists
and their psychometric model.
Charles Spearman's believed that intelligence is a combination of two parts. According to
his two-factor theory of intelligence, the performance of any intellectual act requires
some combination of g, (general intelligence factor) which is available to the same
individual to the same degree for all intellectual acts. (Specific factors) or s is
specific to that act and varies in strength from one act to another. S is specific
knowledge such as verbal reasoning or spatial problem solving. Spearman equated g with
mental energy. If one knows how a person performs on one task that is highly saturated
with g, one can safely predict a similar level of performance for another highly g
saturated task. Prediction of performance on tasks with high s factors is less accurate.
Thus, the most important information to have about a person's intellectual ability is an
estimate of their g or mental energy (Plucker 1989). 
Thurstone's theory is based on seven primary mental abilities. In the area of
intelligence, his theory maintains that intelligence is made up of several primary mental
abilities rather than just the g and s factors. He was among the first to propose and
demonstrate that there are numerous ways in which a person can be intelligent.
Thurstone's Multiple-factors theory identified these seven primary mental abilities: 
? Verbal Comprehension 
? Word Fluency 
? Number Facility 
? Spatial Visualization 
? Associative Memory 
? Perceptual Speed 
? Reasoning 
Thurstone's theory has been used to construct intelligence tests that yield a profile of
the individual's performance on each of the ability tests, rather than general that yield
a single score such as an IQ. 
Guilford's theory includes 150 abilities, arranged in three dimensions: contents,
operations, and products. Guilford's three-dimensional Structure of Intellect classified
intellectual acts into 120 separate categories. These categories are operations
dimension, products dimension and material or content dimension. He developed firm
convictions regarding the ability of individual difference among people. Guilford's
believed that intelligence is much too complicated to be subsumed by a few primary mental
abilities and g factor. His systematic theory gave rise to what is known as
informational-operational psychology.
Information-Processing 
Informational theorists believe that human cognition is best understood as the management
of information through a system with limited space or resources (Bukato & Daehler 1998).
Two theorists that promote informational processing models are Sternberg and Gardner. 
Sternberg's triarchic theory consists of three parts: cognitive components of
intelligence, experience and intelligence, and context of intelligence. They are divided
in three major sub-theories: Componential is encoding, combining and comparing stimuli
and evaluating one own performance. Contextual is the adaptation to one's environment.
The two-facet sub-theory is the ability to process novelty and the ability to atomize
cognitive processes. One of Sternberg's most important contributions to intelligence
theory has been the redefinition of intelligence to incorporate practical knowledge. As
Sternberg insists, 'real life is where intelligence operates' and not in the classroom .
. . . The true measure of success is not how well one does in school, but how well one
does in life (Trosky, 1998).
Dr. Howard Garner believed that intelligence is the ability to find and solve problems
and create products of value in one's own culture. Gardner's theory of multiple
intelligence (MI) maintains that people often show marked individual differences in their
ability to process specific kinds of information (Bukato & Daehler 1998). Gardner
originally identified seven such faculties, which he labeled as intelligences:
? Linguistic: Functions of language
? Musical: Individual have different musical abilities
? Logico-mathematical: Reasoning, hierarchical and numerical relations
? Spatial: Comprehension of shapes and images. The ability to perceive and interpret what
we cannot see
? Bodily kinesthetic: Utilizing ones body; control over movements, balance, agility and
grace. 
? Intrapersonal: Cognitive ability to understand and sense our self.
? Inter-personal: Ability to interact with others, understand them, and interpret their
behaviors.
Multiple intelligences theory, in a nutshell, is a pluralized way of understanding the
intellect. Recent advances in cognitive science, developmental psychology and
neuroscience suggest that each person's level of intelligence is actually made up of
autonomous faculties that can work individually or in concert with other faculties.
Interpreting & Grouping
Methods
Three common methods for reporting performance on tests are developmental, percentiles,
and standard scores. The most common is developmental scores, which are sometimes
classified as mental age and grade equivalents, although many tests provide
age-equivalent scores. Many schools show reaching of goals and objectives by utilizing
these types of test scores. The strength with-in developmental scores are that the result
is descriptive, meaning it can clearly show the difference in a score. For example
hearing that Sue has a mental age of seven years, or a third grade reading level,
provides what seems to be a vivid picture of where Sue stands within the rest of the
seven year olds. One item to be cautious of when interpreting is that the "scale" or
"ratio" may not be even. For example, an 8 year old having the reading level of a 6 year
old may show some impairment, whereas a 12-year-old functioning at the 10year-old level
might be only moderately behind. Consequently, the difference in functioning between a 19
and a 17-year-old might be meaningless. 
Percentile scores provide an index of where one stands relative to others on a scale of 1
to 100. A score at the first or 100th percentile does not mean that the person got all of
the questions on the test right or wrong. Percentile scores mean that the individual
performed worse or better than everybody else in the comparison group. Nonetheless, like
developmental scores the unit of measure varies across the range. There is relatively
little difference between scores at the 40th and 60th percentiles, but a 20-point
difference near either tail of the distribution will be substantial.
Standard score scales have the advantage of being indicative of performance relative to
others, but the unit of measure remains constant across the range of scores. 
Standard score scales report scores in standard deviation units from the normative
sample's mean. Thus, to interpret standard scores, one must know the mean and standard
deviation of the scale on which it is based (Woodcock 1989).
Grouping & Validity
One of the important questions that always comes up regarding the validity and
reliability of these tools are what are the tests really measuring? Are they measuring a
person's intelligence? What about their ability to perform well on standardized tests? Is
that alone, another measurement of their intelligence? It is critical to examine the
situations around which these tests are given. A person may not have had breakfast, could
possible be ill that day or is having a panic attack regarding taking the test. Many
factors go in to the test itself. Other major factors are cultural backgrounds, parenting
practices and the home environment. To issue a truly standardized test, the testing
environment should be the same for everyone involved. No matter how carefully written,
standardized intelligence tests have particular cultural biases, and are almost always
based on language ability and mathematical prowess. These traits are important and
desirable, but they may not be the only factors in determining a person's intelligence.
Conclusion
Intelligence is difficult to define. Theoretically it is the capacity to learn new
information, to understand one's world and to be resourceful in coping with challenges.
Intelligence consists of abilities necessary to adapt to the environment to achieve
goals. Psychologists differ on how they define intelligence and exactly which abilities
comprise intelligence.
Intelligence testing provides standardized and objective measures that can be considered
useful for evaluating children and adolescents. When interpreted in the context of other
intellectual information, these data are very useful for developing a plan for a person.
Intelligence testing reveals something about the person's academic type and their general
mental abilities. Newer or recently developed test may be better equipped to encompass
all of the components necessary to evaluate a person's intelligence level. 
Finally, It is important to realize the biases, cultural differences and other factors
that may interpret a score or result. Keeping in mind that the overall progress of a
child depends on many factors and not their IQ or "intelligence". 
Bibliography
Bukatko, D., & Daehler, M.W., (1998). Child Development: A Thematic Approach (3rd ed.).
Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company
Jonathan Plucker, Ph.D. (1998) Learning & Cognition, Indiana University General
Intelligence, Objectively Determined and Measured
Trosky, Susan M., (1989) Contemporary Authors, Vol. 126. Gale Research, Detroit, MI.